When Barrow returned jobless to Brunswick County in 1931 his father urged him to keep busy, rather than wait for a job to materialize. at his father's suggestion, he began to study his family history so he could construct a genealogy. Barrow traveled to examine the bound volumes of old county records for names of his ancestors (Davey 1990). Along with his ancestral records, Barrow found, in Surry County, records that had been restored. He was fascinated with the contrast between the decayed state of most of the county record volumes and the comparatively good condition of those that had been restored. at this time, he read a newspaper article urging those out of work to create their own jobs. He then began to think of creating a new career for himself in document restoration (Barrow invents unusual job . . . [1940]).
The field of document restoration brought many diverse, but important, strands of his life and interests together: family, social life, history, paper, and craftsmanship. He reported that he knew his father was interested in such things, so, why not he (Barrow invents unusual job . . . [1940])?
Family was important to Barrow, it defined him; his good name was valuable to him in Virginia society. the knowledge that a family's history could be lost forever because of the fragility of the paper upon which vital records were written must have had an impact upon him.
His childhood fascination with paper and its possibilities for craftsmanship was again aroused. He told a reporter several years later that he was fascinated by the workmanship that made the restoration of these old record books possible. He was further intrigued by craftsmanship that could be used to perpetuate history.
He probably did not yet know that the deterioration of the paper he observed could be connected as well to the laboratory sciences he enjoyed studying at Randolph-Macon. He said that he had decided at the moment he saw the restored records to enter the restoration field, provided he could get any work to do in it once he learned how to do it (Newspaper clipping 1932).
Virginia society was stratified, especially at its highest levels, based upon heredity and traceable lineage, which was demonstrated only by genealogical research. for example, if a (white) woman could trace her European, usually English, ancestry in the American Colonies to a period before the American Revolution, she could join the Colonial Dames as well as the Daughters of the American Revolution. Within the mores of the period, she would be considered socially superior to any (white) woman who could trace European ancestors only to the period of the Revolution and could thereby qualify only for the Daughters of the American Revolution. The societal stratification based upon genealogy existed apart from and was considered superior to stratification based solely upon wealth. The patriotic hereditary societies for both men and women were numerous and functioned to delineate social strata throughout the South. Genealogy was therefore extremely important.
The connection between genealogy and restoration goes further than just piquing Barrow's initial interest. Barrow soon learned that financial support for the restoration of county vital records was available from many sources, foremost among these were the patriotic groups, the Virginia State Library, and individual citizens (Barrow invents unusual job . . . [1940]).
Since the Barrow family first arrived in the American Colonies in the early eighteenth century, they were firmly within the highest hereditary levels of Virginia society. Barrow's family genealogy opened to him membership in the same patriotic societies that so actively sponsored restoration. Eventually, he became a member of the Sons of the Revolution, Sons of the Colonial Wars, First Families of Virginia, and the southern social fraternity, Kappa Alpha Order (Resume [1966]). He also had access to fellow alumni of Randolph-Macon Academy and College, institutions known for educating Virginia's most influential and wealthy sons. He found in the Surry County Records Office not only a potential craft, but employment that was supported by and dependent upon people much like himself.
At that time restoration was not considered a professional-level occupation. Those who actually did the hands-on work were considered workmen or artisans. Restorers, whether they worked with paintings, art on paper, or ancient documents and books, got their hands dirty, and regularly wore aprons or smocks during work. Although the work they did was expensive, it was costly because the work required expensive, high quality supplies and many hours of painstaking handwork. Restorers themselves were never well paid, especially if remuneration was calculated by the hour. Most restorers at that time worked privately in shops or binderies. The few restorers employed in museums, rare book libraries, or archives were considered workers or assistants with little opportunity to influence institutional policy. Restorers usually had little access, professionally or socially, to an institution's administrators (Higginbotham 1990, 163-168).
Barrow may have been one of the first workers in restoration to be the social equal of his customers. in Virginia, characteristics such as social standing were important for success in almost any undertaking. His access to the higher levels of society made it possible for him to be far more influential and effective in libraries and archives conservation than his level of employment would suggest. His position in society alone, apart from his obvious interest and enthusiasm for restoration, made him attractive to those who, in the early 1930s, could arrange and fund the establishment of his new career. Two such benefactors were the State Librarian, Henry Read McIlwaine, and prominent socialite, Martha Woodroof Hiden. Barrow first met McIlwaine during 1931, when he was exploring restoration as a career. "He went to Dr. McIlwaine who, delighted at the thought of having some such craftsman near at hand, promised to give him as much work as the library could afford if the young man became adept in his new undertaking" (Newspaper clipping 1932). Barrow, therefore, had the State Librarian's oral assurance of assistance before he sought training in restoration.
Dr. Lyon G. Tyler, President of William and Mary College, championed legislation that in 1892 apportioned $5,000 for the copying of records dated before 1700. No state funds were actually allocated to carry out this work. to follow up on Tyler's initial step, the Virginia State Library Board passed a resolution in 1905 that urged the legislature to preserve the old county records. It was not until the early 1920s that the State Librarian successfully engineered a consistently funded program for preservation of county records (Hiden 1937, 723).
Dr. Henry Read McIlwaine was appointed State Librarian in 1907 following a career as college librarian and professor of history and English at his alma mater, Hampden-Sydney College. Like Barrow's mother, McIlwaine was raised in Petersburg, Virginia. Hampden-Sydney College was similar to Barrow's alma mater, Randolph-Macon, in that its graduates were influential. McIlwaine belonged to many of the same patriotic societies that Barrow eventually did. As State Librarian, McIlwaine continued his interest in history and scholarship. He created and supervised an ambitious program of publication in Virginia history, and served as its editor. McIlwaine lobbied for and eventually won legislation to preserve certain non-current county records by transferring them from county offices to the State Library. Further, McIlwaine offered to store at the State Library vital records that overflowed the county clerks' offices. Morgan Robinson, Virginia State Archivist, joined McIlwaine in the rescue of the State's records. They collected the county records into the newly formed Archives Division of the State Library (Williams 1935, 4).
When these records began to arrive, they proved to be in such deteriorated condition that McIlwaine initiated a program of restoration immediately. The State Library had no funds for the restoration. McIlwaine began to lobby the patriotic societies, asking them to pay the restoration costs for the records upon which their memberships depended. the patriotic societies raised money for each restoration project in honor of or in memory of a prominent citizen or group member. The restored volumes carried a dedication page with the names of those honored along with the sponsoring group and the date of restoration (Hiden 1937, 724).
In 1923, the National Society of United States Daughters of 1812 was the first patriotic society to sponsor restoration of county records in cooperation with the State Library. York County records, including those from colonial and revolutionary era Yorktown and Williamsburg, were chosen for this first project because of their historical value (Hiden 1927, 724). Patriotic societies also assisted the State Library's preservation efforts in other ways. in 1925, for instance, the Colonial Dames purchased a Photostat machine for the State Library's new program to reformat current county records. The Photostats were gathered and bound into volumes like the original record books (Report of the State Librarian 1925).
Restoration projects were eventually supported by many patriotic societies. Societies that regularly supported restoration projects were the Daughters of the American Revolution, the National Society of United States Daughters of 1812, the Daughters of American Colonists, the Colonial Daughters of the Seventeenth Century, the National Society of Daughters of the Founders and Patriots of America, the Order of the Crown in America, and the Sons of the Revolution in the State of Virginia (Jester 1936).
McIlwaine worked closely with individual members of the patriotic societies to restore county records. Foremost among these members was Martha Woodroof Hiden. From the late 1920s until her death in 1959, Hiden was active in securing support from the societies for restoration projects. Hiden, an alumna of Randolph-Macon Women's College and the University of Chicago, was a member of the State Library Board, 1932-1952. She was a leader in many patriotic societies and chairwoman of the record preservation committees for both the Daughters of the American Revolution and the Society of Colonial Dames in the State of Virginia. in addition, she was president of the Order of the First Families of Virginia, and a fellow of the American Society of Genealogists. The widow of Philip Wallace Hiden, a wealthy businessman and mayor of Newport News, 1920-1924, she was prominent in society throughout her life (New England Historical and Genealogical Register 1959, 308). She used her position and considerable eloquence to promote restoration of historical records.
The practical uses for Virginia county records are manifold. The work done in restoring Williamsburg to its appearance as the capital of Colonial Virginia was greatly facilitated through information contained in a full set of records in York County. The final source of genealogical research for descendants of Virginia settlers, who migrated to all parts of the United States, is in these records. Historians constantly refer to them as the authorities for deductions concerning the past. Novelists have translated their contents into romantic tales that have become a part of the nation's literature. They are the constant fountain of historical information for every undertaking that reaches back into the original wide domain extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast, which was old Virginia (Hiden 1937, 734).
Hiden demonstrated a clear understanding of what is involved in actual restoration work. "The nature of the work renders it slow and expensive. Only especially trained workmen possessed with a sense of appreciation for the fragile and priceless volumes can be entrusted with the delicate task. The finest materials must be used, and special equipment employed to insure a durability that does not alter the original document" (Hiden 1937, 724).
Under Hiden's active promotion the pace of restoration for the county records accelerated. for over thirty years, she traveled throughout the state stimulating interest in and support for the restoration of records. Hiden maintained her interest in the societies' restoration projects, and when she could no longer travel she used the telephone to prod others to continue their support. She was responsible for the restoration of over a thousand seventeenth and eighteenth century record books (Barrow 1966).
Barrow and Hiden worked together from the beginning of his restoration career. Her role went beyond philanthropy; she also eased his way in life on several occasions by calling upon her social connections to assist him. Her initial influence was most important; she created an environment that supported restoration activity throughout the Depression. Ruth remembers that Barrow met Hiden when he spoke at a meeting of the Daughters of the American Revolution in 1932. She credits Hiden with getting Barrow established with his clients in the restoration business. "Mrs. Hiden probably recommended Bill . . . [to] chapters of the DAR [and other organizations].... They'd use . . . [restoration work] as a project since there were so many records to be done." Hiden nurtured Ruth's interest in the patriotic societies. Ruth felt that Hiden was unfailingly supportive of both her activities and those of her husband (R. G. Barrow 1987).
Barrow acknowledged his life long debt to Hiden:
[She was] . . . a valued associate. When I began my career as a restorer of manuscripts in 1932, she enthusiastically encouraged my efforts. She became a type of missionary in convincing others of the need for such work in the history records of the commonwealth.... Our activities thus became closely allied. Mrs. Hiden stimulated interest in restoration programs, obtained funds for such work, and transported deteriorating documents from localities throughout the state to the restoration shop. I took over at that point and proceeded with the actual restoration.... This was a most significant contribution, especially during the lean years . . . of . . . the Great Depression. It can be said that the results of Mrs. Hiden's activities in the restoration and preservation field cover Virginia's records like a blanket (Barrow "Speech . . ." 1966, 1-2).
Although McIlwaine had developed an aggressive program of restoration for the state's records, by 1932 there were still no local document restorers. Fragile records were shipped out of state, usually to the Emery Company in Taunton, Massachusetts, for restoration, a process that put them at even greater risk. McIlwaine needed to find or to develop a local restorer. He requested from the legislature three additional assistant positions, a janitor, a guard, and a restorer, "employed almost wholly in repairing manuscripts, putting them into condition to be bound into books here in Richmond, thus doing away with the necessity of sending the manuscript books except those in the very worst condition away to be 'restored,' and saving a good deal of money" (Report of the State Librarian 1931, 15). He had been making such requests for a number of years without success. in 1931, McIlwaine was again unsuccessful in getting the legislature to fund the three new positions. in the face of this legislative indifference, McIlwaine created an alternative plan.
Barrow sought more information about restoration and contacted the State Library in the fall of 1931 when he learned of its county records program. McIlwaine suggested that a small work area could be made available in the State Library for a trained restorer who was interested in a rent-for-discount arrangement. The restorer would be free to work for other clients during library hours. It is likely that both McIlwaine and Hiden, who was on the Library's Board, saw the prospect of their restoration plans materializing in Barrow, an energetic, interested, and unemployed Virginian of good family. Hiden, in turn, ensured that there would be enough work from the patriotic societies' projects to support the establishment and continued prosperity of a State Library-based restoration business (R. G. Barrow 1987).
In the fall of 1931, Bill's sister Sarah had just gotten a teaching job in a Georgetown junior high school. Barrow had little idea of where to acquire the necessary training for his new restoration career. She suggested that he go with her to Washington, D.C., to explore the training opportunities in its many libraries, archives, and museums. Barrow wanted to learn by doing and support himself at the same time by getting a job in one of the government agency restoration shops. He went to the Library of Congress but no jobs were available there or elsewhere. Sarah's $180 monthly salary had to cover all their expenses. Since Barrow did not have a job, he did the cooking and the dishes; hamburger was 18¢ a pound so they usually had it with other inexpensive foods like canned butter beans and potatoes. Sarah remembered that they had "no money for before-dinner drinks or cigarettes" (Davey 1990).
Through an acquaintance at church, Sarah learned the name of the leading hand bookbinding teacher in Washington at the time, Marian U. M. Lane. Barrow went to talk with Lane, who "invited" him to take lessons. He paid Lane $5 an hour for lessons. He had two lessons a week and he volunteered to "help" her every day. Thus, Barrow managed to get a full-time tutorial for the price of two lessons a week. He must have learned quickly. During the short time he studied bookbinding, he also "inquired" about document restoration techniques at the Library of Congress and at restoration shops in the area. in the evenings he practiced bookbinding at home using a 50¢ table and a small discarded nipping press (Davey 1990). Barrow reported that he "slaved fourteen hours a day for [a few] months" learning his craft (Newspaper clipping 1932). Although Barrow was probably not entirely compatible with the artistic milieu of Lane's studio, studying there nonetheless facilitated his career plans.
Although bookbinding is a functional craft, some practitioners emphasize its decorative characteristics as a means of artistic expression. Marian Lane was representative of this tradition of genteel artists who practice bookbinding and other book arts, such as calligraphy, as art. According to Lane, "I took up binding after I found my technique was too exact for the miniature painting I wanted to do. When someone first suggested it, I was insulted. They might as well ask me to make boots, I thought. But when I tried it, it was thrilling" (Kauffman 1953, 18). Lane studied as an apprentice with Sangorski and Sutcliffe, a famous and respected fine binding company in London from 1901 to 1905 (Rice 1963, B7).
Lane worked in the book arts of illumination and calligraphy as well as creating fine or designer bookbindings for wealthy clients. in addition, she gave lessons in these arts (Rice 1963, B7). Her students were usually Washington matrons and socialites. Lane scheduled her classes only in the mornings so that "men won't stay on and on" (Kauffman 1953, 21). How much Barrow "helping" her all day may have contributed to the development of her teaching schedule is open to conjecture.
At Lane's studio, in addition to learning bookbinding and restoration, Barrow was introduced to members of Washington society. His experience at Lane's studio could have served to convince him that restoration was an appropriate career for someone from his social background. He met many people in Washington who were interested in books, historical documents, and restoration. Sarah recalled that Emily Clara Jordan Folger gave Barrow a tour of the Folger Shakespeare Library including the special collections. Seeing the rare books there was an inspirational experience for him, and increased his conviction that restoration was the right career choice (Davey 1990).
Barrow spent only a few months at Lane's studio. It is likely that he was impatient, as he had been in college, to continue his life in business, this time running his own restoration shop.
Although Lane was primarily interested in the art and design aspects of bookbinding, she was capable of teaching Barrow the highly respected tradition of English trade binding (Conroy 1990, 8). Thus, Barrow had access to the best conservation and binding traditions of the time. It is clear from examples of his work that Barrow learned all phases of hand bookbinding, forwarding to finishing: folding sheets, collation, sewing, board construction with wooden and paper boards, covering with leather and cloth, leather working, gold lettering and tooling, and multicolor leather inlay and onlay. From the beginning of his career in restoration Barrow had learned in a tutorial manner techniques and procedures from Marian Lane. He also observed restoration work done at the Library of Congress. He was to continue this tutorial style of learning and his reliance on the experts in Washington, D. C., for the next ten years.
Early in his career, Barrow practiced a variety of paper restoration and bookbinding techniques. During the 1930s he cleaned by washing, repaired, strengthened and bound deteriorated documents, and rebound or repaired books. He backed maps and other large-sized flat paper documents with fabric. He also used contemporary methods and formulas to restore faded inks. As he developed his version of cellulose acetate lamination, he used the new technique to make some of the traditional techniques easier to accomplish. "As a by-product of lamination, I have successfully split paper into several sheets both as an aid in restoration and also as a method of studying inks and fibers at various depths. By use of plastic foil [film], I can transfer ink from one paper to another where it can be treated with solutions . . . [to darken faded inks]" (Barrow "Technological and occupational qualifications" [1940]). at this time he also practiced a form of cellulose acetate encapsulation by laminating a document sandwich only at its edges: he used this relatively reversible technique for documents that still had some strength (Barrow 1939, 151).
In 1944, upon hearing that Barrow had stopped hand binding in favor of devoting all his shop time to lamination, Lane wrote, "I was utterly distressed to hear that you had given up Bookbinding & parted with all your tools! I don't know how you could do that, I thought it was 'once a Bookbinder, always a Bookbinder', especially for anyone as enthusiastic as you used to be! Don't you miss it horribly?" (Lane 1944). Barrow's decision to stop hand bookbinding may also be understood if at that time he had seen his laminated sheets breaking from a bound volume at the binding margin. Laminated leaves are not as flexible as durable paper; they have a tendency to crack under heavy use. Some binding structures may mitigate the tendency of laminated leaves to break under use. The binding structures Barrow learned from Lane were those of the English trade hand binding tradition that are most useful with flexible and strong paper. Barrow may have chosen to abandon hand bookbinding altogether when he was faced with laminated sheets breaking out of his tightly bound volumes (Banks 1988).
Barrow learned hands-on practices similar to those taught today. One of the differences between his training and modern conservation practice is in the relative importance now placed upon lamination techniques. Lamination with transparent paper, silk, and cellulose acetate is viewed today among conservators as a minor technique with a limited application. in the United States today lamination has been largely superseded by polyester foil (film) encapsulation for all but the most severely damaged paper. However, Barrow is largely responsible for the current emphasis on the chemical nature of the materials. His chemical emphasis includes the recognition of the need for chemical information in conservation practice and its introduction and promotion to the field.
From 1935 to 1941, Barrow synthesized and applied existing chemical knowledge to his own needs in document restoration. The next chapter contains an overview of that process and of Barrow's personal life and interactions within the two institutions that sheltered and supported his life and work, the Virginia State Library and the Mariners Museum.
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